miércoles, 19 de febrero de 2020

Disproportionate representation of emergent bilinguals in special education. Advocacy Project

Introduction

English Language Learners (ELLs) or Emergent Bilinguals (EBs) are the fastest developing subgroup of students in the United States. Scientists foresee that English Language Learners will constitute around 25% of the country's students in 2025. ELLs are those who speak a language other than English at home and whose English reading, composing, and comprehension abilities are too low to benefit from receiving instruction completely in English.
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (“NCLB”), the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (“IDEA”), and Every Student Succeed Act (ESSA) of 2015 address the general and special education needs of ELL students. “ESSA requires states to include the acquisition of English language proficiency by ELLs/MLLs as one factor in overall statewide accountability provides states with two accountability options regarding recently arrived ELLs/MLLs (including whether to administer the English Language Arts assessment during the first year of arrival, and how to hold schools and districts accountable for their Maths and English Language Arts progress), and requires states to set uniform ELL/MLL identification and exit criteria, as well as a timeline for ELLs/MLLs to reach proficiency” (NYC DE).
IDEA, NCLB, and ESSA also provide for the special education of ELL students. The legislation considers an EB student not eligible for special education services if the basis of his/her disability is the child’s limited English proficiency. Also, the student is ineligible if environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage are the determining aspects of the disability. (Mikutis, p. 2)

THE ISSUE

Despite the legislative requirement of nondiscriminatory assessments and the use of the student’s native language for the evaluation, many students are improperly placed in special education programs, impeding their access to general education and creating a disproportionate number of ELL students in special education programs. Improperly placed EBs in special education account for about 75% of the total ELLs in SpEd. (Mikutis, p. 2)
The literature identifies disproportionality regarding overrepresentation and underrepresentation. Mark Guiberson, in his book “Hispanic Representation in Special Education: Patterns and Implications”, states that “overrepresentation occurs when the percentage of minority students in special education programs is greater than that in the school population as a whole.” On the other hand, underrepresentation happens when authorities do not place students with special needs in the appropriate program. Disproportionality creates a “national issue, rooted in state-to-state disparities, of disproportionate numbers of LEP students in special education programs” (Mikutis, M. p. 3).

WHY DISPROPORTIONALITY HAPPENS

Researchers distinguish four factors that influence the disproportionate patterns of identification of disabilities in ELL students: professionals’ knowledge of second language development and disabilities, instructional practices, intervention strategies, and assessment tools.
Professionals’ Knowledge of Second Language Development and Disabilities
According to Artiles and Ortiz (2002); Kushner and Ortiz (2000); Zehler et al. (2003) most teachers in general and special education do not have the proper knowledge to address the education needs of children from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Educators may confuse the EB’s patterns of language acquisition with a learning disability symptom (Piper 2003). The time span for ELLs to acquire a second language is 2-3 years to learn basic interpersonal communication skills (Cummins 1979) and 5-7 years to acquire academic language proficiency (Cummins 1979, 2000; Hakuta 2001). Teachers may incorrectly identify these time spans as a learning disability instead of a language development issue (Cummins 1984; Ortiz 1997).
Instructional Practices
            Despite that, the law requires that all children receive ELA and math research-based curriculum instruction before considering their evaluation for special education. Most EBs are receiving instruction in mainstream monolingual classrooms, hence, placing them in unsuitable learning environments (Cummins 1984; Ortiz 1997).  Also, most of the mainstream teachers do not have training in second language acquisition and development or special education (Zehler et al. 2003).
Intervention Strategies
            Researchers have concluded that the intervention strategies for ELL students struggling academically are inappropriate (Garcia and Ortiz 2006; Klingner and Edwards 2006). Teachers do not have access to or training in effective intervention strategies for ELLs. In consequence, students are identified erroneously as having a learning disability.
Assessment Tools
            The linguistic complexity of the diagnostic tests to determine a child disability may falsely identify an ELL as having or not having a disability (Abedi 2006; Skiba, Knesting, and Bush 2002).  Also, the result relies on the judgment and the qualifications of the evaluators, and the psychometric accuracy of the tool (Klingner et al. 2008; Ortiz and Graves 2001).

ADVOCACY STRATEGY

This advocacy strategy has three objectives
  1. Raising awareness of parents about the disproportionate representation of ELLs in Special Education and the reason why this is happening.
  2. Educating parents about the rights they have concerning their child’s education and evaluation.
  3. Educating parents about the steps and demands they must make to ensure that their children receive research-based instruction, that their teachers are certified as bilingual teachers or ESL, and that the evaluation they receive is customized in the child’s domain language.
  4. Raising awareness of minority elected officials about the issue and encouraging them to establish a task force to fight for a sound education for ELL.
The advocacy strategy will have three steps:
  1. Elaboration of three brochures in the languages of the target population: One brochure on disproportionate representation of ELLs in special education; another on rights of parents of ELLs education; and a third on parents’ self-advocacy to demand their rights. (SEE SAMPLE BROCHURE ATTACHED)
  2. Designing a website where an expanded version of the content of the three brochures is included. The website will include links to other information sources and advocacy offices.
  3. Organizing a public forum regarding the issue of ELL education and disproportionate representation in special education with the elected officials in a different school districts.
Creating an alliance with minority elected officials and other community leaders to form a task force to fight for a sound education for the children of our immigrant parents is a first step to secure the success of this advocacy project. Furthermore, the involvement of the elected officials will secure the resources necessary to carry on the project. Also, the task force will become a powerful and influential voice that cannot be silenced.

References

Abedi, J. (2006). Psychometric issues in the ELL assessment and special education
eligibility. Teachers College Record, 108(11), 2282–303.
Artiles, A.J., Rueda, R., Salazar, J.J., and Higareda, I. (2005). Within-group diversity in
minority disproportionate representation: English language learners in urban
school districts. Exceptional Children, 71(3), 283–300. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/northeast/pdf/REL_2010085.pdf
Artiles, A.J., and Ortiz, A.A. (Eds.). (2002). English language learners with special
needs: identification, placement, and instruction. Washington, DC: Center for
Applied Linguistics.
Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingual and special education: issues in assessment and
pedagogy. San Diego, CA: College-Hill Press.
Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic
interdependence, the optimum age question, and some other matters. Working
Papers on Bilingualism, 19, 121–29. Retrieved May 4, 2007, from www.iteachilearn.com/cummins/bicscalp.html.
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: bilingual children in the crossfire.
Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters.
Garcia, S.B., and Ortiz, A.A. (2006). Preventing disproportionate representation:
culturally and linguistically responsive prereferral interventions. Teaching
Exceptional Children, 38(4), 64–68.
Hakuta, K. (2001). A critical period for second language acquisition? In D.B. Bailey, J.T.
Bruer, F.J. Symons, and J.W. Lichtman (Eds.), Critical thinking about critical
periods. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Klingner, J.K., and Edwards, P.A. (2006). Cultural considerations with response to
intervention models. Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 108–17.
Klingner, J.K., Almanza, E., de Onis, C., and Barletta, L.M. (2008). Misconceptions
about the second language acquisition process. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Kushner, M.I., and Ortiz, A.A. (2000). The preparation of early childhood education
teachers for English language learners. In New Teachers for a New Century: the
Future of Early Childhood Professional Development. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Education, National Institute on Early Childhood Development and
Education.
Mark Guiberson (2009) Hispanic representation in special education: patterns and
implications. In Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children
and Youth, 53:3, 167-176, DOI: 10.3200/PSFL.53.3.167-176
Mikutis, M [n.d.] The disproportionate representation of limited english proficiency (LEP)
students in special education programs. Retrieved from
National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (2004).
Disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in
special education: measuring the problem. Retrieved from
New York State Education Department. (n.d.). English language learners/multilingual
learners and the every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) Retrieved from
Ortiz, A.A. (1997). Learning disabilities occurring concomitantly with linguistic
differences. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(3), 321–32.
Ortiz, A.A., and Graves, A. (2001). English language learners with literacy-related
learning disabilities. In International Dyslexia Association commemorative
booklet. Baltimore, MD: International Dyslexia Association.
Piper, T. (2003). Language and learning: the home and school years (3rd ed.).
Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Robertson, K., Sánchez-López, C., & Breiseth, L. (n.d.) Addressing ELLs' Language

Learning and Special Education Needs: Questions and Considerations.

Retrieved from

http://www.colorincolorado.org/article/addressing-ells’-language-learning-

and-special-education-needs-questions-and-considerations

Sánchez, M.T., Parker, C., Akbayin, B., and McTigue, A. (2010). Processes and
challenges in identifying learning disabilities among students who are English
language learners in three New York State districts (Issues & Answers Report,
REL 2010–No. 085). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of
Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory Northeast and Islands. Retrieved
from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/northeast/pdf/REL_2010085.pdf
Skiba, R.J., Knesting, K., and Bush, L.D. (2002). Culturally competent assessment:
more than non-biased tests. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 11(1), 61–78.
Zehler, A.M., Fleischman, H.L., Hopstock, P.J., Stephenson, T.G., Pendzick, M.L., and
Sapru, S. (2003). Descriptive study of services to LEP students and LEP
students with disabilities (No. 4 Special topic report: findings on special education
LEP students). Arlington, VA: Development Associates.



martes, 19 de junio de 2018

Social Studies Digital Resources for Teachers

My passion project is the creation of a social studies digital resources directory accessible from the fingerprint. I created this directory taking into consideration the following criteria; first, the resource is teachers focused, or that it has materials relevant to instruction and strategies like lesson plans, teacher guides, aligning to the common core. Second, the content is presented in diverse media including video, pictures, readings, audio, etc. Third, clear identification of the institution or the author responsible for the content. Knowing the authors assure us whether or not the material is reliable. Lastly, the resource is free to access without restrictions.

     I ask all readers to please, contribute with their opinions regarding the present directory, and sharing lesson developed with any of the resources listed. Also, I cordially invite you to share other resources that you may know or have used in your instruction. Please, use the commentary section at the end of this directory for your sharing and opinions. Thank you.



.org
Grades: K12
Author: icivics.org

This is a free-access website that provides teachers with a variety of resource for teaching civics in the K12 classroom. It is aligned with each states common core standards.
Justice Sandra Day O'Connor founded iCivics in 2009 to reimagine civic education. Her vision was clear and ambitious: To cultivate a new generation of students for thoughtful and active citizenship. Civic knowledge is a prerequisite for civic participation.”

The website includes.
  • Games: Our Flash-based games require no downloading and are designed to be played in under 45 minutes. 
  • Lesson Plans: These print-and-go PDF lessons take between one and two class periods. Lesson plans are the core of each unit. 
  • Mini-Lessons: These two-page reading & activity collections can be assigned as independent work or combined into larger lessons. 
  • WebQuests: Students can explore internet resources in a controlled way with these guided research activities. 
  • Drafting Board: This is our interactive, online essay-builder for argumentative writing. Use this 3- to 4-day tool to bookend a unit with a related hot topic.




Grades: K12
Author: The Southern Poverty Law Center
     “Teaching Tolerance provides free resources to educators—teachers, administrators, counselors and other practitioners—who work with children from kindergarten through high school. Educators use our materials to supplement the curriculum, to inform their practices, and to create civil and inclusive school communities where children are respected, valued and welcome participants.”
     It includes films, posters, and an automatic instruction plan builder. Also, learning plan, lesson, and teaching strategies. Teachers and users are free to print and duplicate any material. Lesson are classified by grades.





Grades: K12
Author: Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media at George Mason University.

      Funded by the U.S. Department of Education (contract number ED-07-CO-0088), Teachinghistory.org is designed to help K–12 history teachers access resources and materials to improve U.S. history education in the classroom. Teachinghistory.org, funded through the Office of Innovation and Improvement Teaching American History (TAH) program, builds on and disseminates the valuable lessons learned by more than 1,000 TAH projects designed to raise student achievement by improving teachers’ knowledge and understanding of traditional U.S. history.
     Multimedia digital resources, including lesson plans, and strategies to teach US History to K12 classrooms. It also includes instructional resources and strategies for English Language Learners.

This resource includes PD and showcases of digital classroom teaching strategies for teachers.





Grades: K12
Author: National Geographic

     DiscoveryEducation.com offers “standards-based digital content for K-12, transforming teaching and learning with award-winning digital textbooks, multimedia content, professional development, and the largest professional learning community of its kind. Serving 4.5 million educators and over 50 million students, Discovery Education’s services are in half of U.S. classrooms, 50 percent of all primary schools in the U.K., and more than 50 countries.” Includes digital resources and lessons for teaching social studies, science, math, language arts, and technology. K12.




Grades: 312
Author: Kidnected World, Inc.   
     Wonderment is a web portal that allows the classroom to connect with other students around the world to solve community problems or to engage in community projects. “The Wonderment is a free online platform where kids, schools, and organizations come together to create a world of good.”

     You can start with anything from a fun creative challenge to a question to an idea to solve a problem in the community. Some Paths lead to projects that impact a community or the world. Paths are a great place to share and grow your project idea by connecting it with others. You can also use the Wondermap see and connect directly with schools and groups working in the Wonderment-- making global learning and connection simple and meaningful whether it's in your own neighborhood or across the globe. You can explore and join in on others’ Paths around the world— or be inspired and start one of your own!

jueves, 16 de junio de 2016

ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE ON A CATHOLIC COMMUNITY

#GLOBALEE CASE STUDY

Raising Awareness, Changing Attitudes and Behaviors on Climate Change Among Catholic Latinos  in a Catholic Church Community thru Environmental Education


Introduction
The lack of knowledge and awareness of climate change is a contributing factor to the citizens’ low-level involvement and commitment to reducing climate change on a personal level. This case study developed an environmental education project in a New York City Catholic Church (The Church of the Ascension). The participants in the training were Catholic Spanish speakers/Latino immigrants. In order to capture different levels of participation, (participation as embodied learning, participation as socially situated learning and participation as action learning ) the project used different elements that contribute to high-level trusts (rational, dispositional, and affinitive trust) such as a priest, an environmental professional from the NYC Department of Environ Conservation, and an environmentalist from the Global Catholic Climate Movement. The content of this educational project was based on the knowledge base content from the Encyclical Laudato Si from Pope Francis, and the Bible (procedural trust).  


Overview
In the last sixty years, the international scientific communities have found and demonstrated that the Earth’s climate temperature is increasing faster than it should be, which is causing climate change. In addition, it is proven that humankind has caused and accelerated the rise in the planet’s climate temperature.  The human race has been provoking and increasing this change since the industrial revolution in 1830. IPCC (2014) stated that “human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gasses are the highest in history. Recent climate changes have had widespread impacts on human and natural systems.” Furthermore, scientific studies show that different natural events are caused by climate change. Among the most relevant events are the melting of the icebergs, an increase in the number and strength of hurricanes, drought, and flooding of different areas of the planet, rise in sea levels, changes in the seasons’ temperatures, increment or reduction of rainfall levels, etc. IPCC (2014). Consequently, if the current trend of CO2 emissions by human beings does not stop or is at least reduced by 40 to 70 percent of the current levels, this civilization or a great part of it is at risk of disappearing.
Climate change is considered the most important human, economic and social issue for the present and future of the human species and of planet Earth. The scientific community, the political and communal leaders locally, nationally and internationally understand the urgency of the problem, its relevancy, origin, and consequences. Nevertheless, the Pew Research Center (2015) in its study “Climate Change Seen as Top Global Threat”, found that a median of only 42% of the people from Europe and the United States consider climate change “the top-rated threat.” This finding reveals the low rate of individual and community involvement in actions to fight climate change.  Psychological factors, education on the subject, as well as the lack of knowledge of the individual carbon footprints contribute to the low individual and community response to climate change and environmental issues.
With this project, we addressed climate change from a local perspective. The project was focused on changing attitudes and behaviors of the Latino Catholic community in order for them to reduce or switch the use of fossil fuel energy, recycle garbage, and also, raise awareness among their families and relatives about the fact of climate change.  In addition, we focused on motivating the participants to organize or join local organizations to advocate for the environment. For these purposes, we used the following disciplines: Non-Formal-Transformative Environmental Education:, Environmental Communication, and Environmental Psychology: Minding the Self.


Environmental Education. Non-Formal and Transformative
In non-formal environmental education, this project applied the five components of environmental education which are raising awareness, transmitting knowledge, building skills, creating a positive attitude toward the environment, and motivating actions to protect and improve our environment. For this purpose we used a transformative environmental education approach to providing ecological learning for being a good Catholic, for making changes in our life, and for transforming and taking care of our environment, considering “ethics, values, empathy, and care.”

Environmental Communication
Taking into consideration the environmental communication concepts, we directed this environmental educational project to a specific audience, with similar beliefs and interests (Catholic members). In addition,  speakers and/or educators who build trust (Priests, Catholic environmental educators, and a professional that works for the New York City Department of Environmental Conservation) participated.

Environmental Psychology: Minding the Self
From a “minding the self” perspective, we presented the subject from a positive point of view. We presented that we need to continue taking care of our environment as a response to God’s calling. We directed the attention of the audience to see the environment as something that provides us with benefits for our spirit and body.

Approach
Using an environmental education approach, this project’s objectives were first, raising awareness about climate change. Second, disseminating knowledge about the current climate change situation and how we contribute to it on a daily basis. Third, providing the skills needed to identify environmental problems. Fourth, inspiring and forging a positive attitude or a “set of values and feelings of concern for the environment.” (Monroe & Krasny, 2015). And fifth, to promoting the participation of the catholic community to engage in environmental education and projects to protect the environment.  Furthermore, we used a transformative learning approach, in which emotional and Christian spiritual elements were applied. Through preaching and prayers,  we looked to cement a  commitment to behavioral change amongst participants by acknowledging God’s creation of nature and the mission of each of them to care about it. After acknowledging the responsibility we have to take care of God’s creation, participants were introduced to the current climate change status and prognosis using the Encyclical Laudato Si and scientific proof. In addition, climate change communication was taken into consideration, especially relating it to health and poverty. Elements of environmental governance were addressed, particularly the one referring to the different levels of participation. The last section of the training taught the participants different ways by which they can take care of Mother Earth.
The Catholic Church has traditionally approached the environment from what it is called the “Catholic Social Teaching”. Catholic Social Teaching involves issues of poverty and wealth, economics, social organization and the role of the state.  Furthermore, on June 17, 2015, Pope Francis, the highest authority of the Catholic Church, promulgated the encyclical Laudato Si. Laudato Si is a Catholic teaching document that addresses climate change and the environment from a very broad perspective. This encyclical call for action not only to the members of the Catholic church but to all members of our society including politicians, governments, international organizations, businesses, and the scientific community.


Outcome
Participants expressed their commitment to change behaviors and take actions, such as recycling and the use of low energy consuming lighting bulbs. An environmental community action group was created. These outcomes definitely contributed, from a local perspective, to address the wicked problem that is climate change. Furthermore, a climate change knowledge and attitude assessment questionnaire was submitted before and after the training. The questionnaires showed that 95 % of the participants had basic knowledge about climate change. Then after the training survey indicated that the audience was motivated to change attitudes and behaviors that benefit the environment. In addition, all of them we willing to participate in a community effort or environmental group to take action to benefit the environment.

jueves, 9 de junio de 2016

Climate Change Education

Titulo original: How Can Awareness on Climate Change Be Raised and More Efficiently Engage the People to the Fight Against It? (Final Bachelor Degree Project. Liberal Arts Capstone_LIB-495-OL010. Thomas Edison State University. December 14, 2015)
Abstract
This research focuses on “How can awareness on climate change be raised to more efficiently engage the people in the fight against it?.” To address this thesis statement, three sub-questions were proposed: 1) What have been the most effective communal initiatives to climate change and/or environmental sustainability? 2) What are the individual behaviors and habits affecting climate change that could be changed to reduce the individual’s carbon footprint? And 3) What are the psychological barriers that may inhibit an individual to take climate change action? The research into the first sub-question brought to light information on outreach initiatives such as the methodology, outreach approach, and the results of the community initiatives showcased. Research into the second sub-question revealed different behaviors and habits – driving, house lighting, household equipment power consumption, in-house climate control, food consumption, etc – which are the main factors that contribute to an individual's carbon footprint emission. Examining the intersection of climate change and psychology brings to bear the various psychological barriers inhibiting individual behavioral adjustments to climate change. These barriers are described as ignorance, uncertainty, mistrust and reactance, denial, judgemental discounting, place attachment, habit, perceived behavioral control, perceived risks from behavioral changes, tokenism and rebound effect, etc.
Introduction
In the last sixty years, the scientific and international communities have found and demonstrated that the Earth's climate temperature is increasing faster than it should be, which is causing climate change. Besides, it is proven that humankind has caused and accelerated the rise in the planet's climate temperature. The human race has been provoking and increasing this change since the industrial revolution in 1830. IPCC (2014) stated that “human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are the highest in history. Recent climate changes have had widespread impacts on human and natural systems. (2)” Furthermore, scientific studies show that different natural events are caused by climate change. Among the most relevant events are melting of the icebergs, increase in number and strength of hurricanes, drought, and flooding of different areas of the planet, rise in sea levels, changes of the seasons’ temperatures, increment or reduction of rainfall levels, etc. IPCC (2014). Consequently, if the current trend of CO2 emissions by human beings does not stop or is at least reduced by 40 to 70 percent of current levels, this civilization or a great part of it is at risk of disappearing.

Climate change is considered the most important human, economic and social issue for the present and future of the human species and of planet Earth. The scientific community, the political and communal leaders locally, nationally and internationally understand the urgency of the problem, its relevancy, origin, and consequences. Nevertheless, the Pew Research Center (2015) in its study “Climate Change Seen as Top Global Threat”, found that a median of only 42% of the people from Europe and the United States consider climate change “the top-rated threat.” This finding reveals the low rate of individual and community involvement in actions to fight climate change. Psychological factors, education on the subject, as well as the lack of knowledge of the individual carbon footprints contribute to the low individual and community response to climate change and environmental issues.

The lack of individual and community involvement in actions against climate change is one of the major concerns in the most advanced societies, such as the United States. This is particularly a challenge because it entails behaviors and habits change. To address this concern, a major research question, How can awareness on climate change be raised to more efficiently engage the people to the fight against it? is outlined to conduct this research. To answer the major question, three sub-questions have been proposed:
  1. What have been the most effective communal initiatives to climate change and/or environmental sustainability?
  2. What are the individual behaviors and habits affecting climate change that could be changed to reduce the individual’s carbon footprint?
  3. What are the psychological factors that inhibit the individual to take climate change action?
Research on scholarly papers and reports has been conducted to outline the most important findings and results to answer the sub-questions of this project.

Literature Review

Climate Change Cause and Consequences
The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2013 has concluded that climate change or global warming that the earth has been experiencing since 1950 has been caused by anthropogenic gas emissions. The panel stated that, after 1830 with the Industrial Revolution, 40% of carbon dioxide increased. The 40% carbon dioxide increase is “primarily from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily from net land-use change emissions.” (IPCC, 2013, p. 11). Using climate modes, the IPCC has established (2013) that the human influence on global warming is evident through the greenhouse gas increase in the atmosphere, the observed warming of the atmosphere and the changes in water cycles.

Climate Change impacts 2014, the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), affirmed that climate change has been causing several natural phenomena such as a warmer atmosphere and ocean, rising sea levels, and melting of the Greenland and Antarctic polar ice caps. Furthermore, they say that the ice melting has affected water resources in quantity and quality. Also, agriculture has been affected, particularly the cultivation of maize and wheat. According to the IPCC, the increment in number and strength of climate-related extreme events, such as “heat waves, droughts, floods, cyclones, and wildfires, reveal significant vulnerability and exposure of some ecosystems and many human systems to current climate variability. (2014, p. 6)”

The IPCC (2014) also conveyed that the natural events that human beings are experiencing with the current increment in global warming will be exacerbated if the current warming trends continue. Animal species extinction, loss of territory and entire islands, food supplies at risk, mortality, and morbidity increased, disrupted livelihood, increased human migration, etc. To reduce the risk projected, the IPCC demanded the reduced emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) generated by the use and exploitation of fossil fuels, which is the main cause of the current global warming trends.


People’s Perceptions of Climate ChangeIn a study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2015 it was found that despite the scientific evidence and the continuous discussion on climate change and/or global warming the citizens of the most advanced countries in Europe and in the United States do not consider it as the most important global threat. The survey reveals that an average of only 42% of Europeans and Americans think of climate change as the most important issue affecting our society. On the other hand, the Pew Research Center found that, in underdeveloped countries, the concern about the future of the planet is much higher, 61% in Latin America and 59% in Sub-Saharan Africans.


Individual Carbon FootprintVandenbergh, Barkenbus, & Gilligan, (2008) conducted research in which they study United States citizens’ behavior and habits related to climate change. Vandenbergh et al., (2008) say that if those behaviors change it could contribute to at least a 10% reduction of United States’ CO2 emission. They draw this conclusion based on the fact that individual carbon dioxide emissions account for 30 to 40 percent of the United States CO2 emission. Changes such as turning the car off while waiting, turning off standby household devices, reducing the use of air conditioning and controlling the house lighting could contribute substantially to the United States’ carbon footprint. Also, Vandenbergh, et al., (2008) proposed that change in citizens’ behaviors and habits would not only contribute to the reduction of carbon emission, but to families’ economy, the reduction of air pollution and consequently to the well-being of the entire society.


Socio-Psychology Approach to Climate Change ResponseThe American Psychology Association (APA) published a 2009 study about the different psychological factors that should be taken into consideration when climate change policy is established. APA affirms that the individual response to climate change depends on different socio-psychological factors that influence the risk appraisal and the environmental threat perception from citizens. Those factors, as stated by APA, are a social construction, social representation, and social amplification. Social construction refers to how the individual through his/her interactions in society, gives meaning and interprets the reality about global warming. Social representation entails the use of different materials and cultural elements that we use to share the individual’s climate change view. Both processes are then amplified when communicating the issues and their perception of risk and manageability. Therefore, to be effective in a climate change outreach campaign to raise awareness and respond to this issue, these socio-psychological factors should be applied. APA, (2009)

In another study by Dickinson, Barkenbus, & Gilligan, (2013) they emphasized that when communicating the message of the effects of climate change to people to motivate them to change their behaviors and habits, the message should be as diverse as the people’s education and cultural background. Besides, Dickinson et al., (2013) assumed that the psyche’s resistance to human catastrophic effects messages should be taken into consideration because it may cause the opposite effect. The people react more proactively when they recognize the consequences of their habits and behaviors affecting other entities such as species, neighbors, and the surrounding environment. Therefore, an effective climate change message to reduce the individual’s carbon footprint should be focused “on collective efficacy [as] an effective means of framing climate change.” (Dickinson, Barkenbus, & Gilligan, 2013)

Methodology

In attempting to answer these questions, I present a qualitative research program. The methodology of this research program is based on the analysis of primary sources, drawing comparisons and correlations between the data and conclusions of scholarly articles to develop new conclusions. Information graphics and tables will represent the data. Because this is a qualitative research study, critical terms that are used by the researchers will be categorized and analyzed to represent the major themes of this research. The primary sources will contribute to the development of a framework for how to diagnose barriers to climate change action and how to effectively engage people to overcome those barriers.

Using academic and scientific databases, such as EBSCO and Google Scholar, I will gather primary source material. Using these articles, I will collect data, findings, and a list of initiatives and cases that have taken place and been analyzed previously. My research will be guided by the three sub-questions identified in the introduction.

The primary research methodology for the first sub-question What have been the most effective communal initiatives to climate change and/or environmental sustainability? will be the use of specific case studies. Cases will be analyzed according to variables such as the problem addressed by the initiative, the population outreach, the actual number of people engaged; the initiative’s message, how many people were involved, and the final outcome. In case there are not enough cases published, a questionnaire will be designed to gather the necessary information about non-published cases. The findings of the studied cases and their characteristics will be correlated to the findings on individual behaviors and the social psychology approach as well. Graphics and tables will be used to present the data and conclusions.

For the second question What are the individual behaviors and habits affecting climate change that could be changed to reduce the individual’s carbon footprint? a comparison-type research approach will be utilized. Data from different primary sources that address each question will be analyzed and compared to produce the answer to the question posed. Graphs and tables will be used to represent the data and findings. I will analyze the carbon footprint emission from the individual, community and population level. Understanding the carbon footprint at each of these three levels will clarify the question of how individual changes in behavior can reduce the causes of climate change.

The last question, What are the psychological barriers that may inhibit an individual to take climate change actions? will also utilize a comparison-type research approach, drawing insight from psychology. Psychological literature will be used to reach an understanding of the specific psychological processes involved in climate change inaction. These findings would be used to adapt an effective means of conveying a message about climate change in a public outreach campaign or a similar initiative. For instance, psychology research indicates that a message which addresses the immediate circumstances of its recipients, such as how a given subject (climate change, for instance), will affect their neighbor, or their home, is more likely to induce people to action. Data from different primary sources that address this question will be analyzed and compared to produce the answer to the question posed.

Answering each of the three sub-questions will yield a set of general guidelines for approaching climate change from the individual or community perspective. Looking at different initiatives in terms of the problem addressed, how the initiative engages people and its success in doing so, outlining the different individual behaviors that can be changed, and combining this with the psychology perspective, taken together, will provide a specific framework for organizing initiatives to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions that are the main cause of climate change.

Statement of Problem

The seriousness of climate change in contrast to the indifference of the citizens of the most advanced countries originates the following question: How can awareness of climate change be raised to more efficiently engage people to fight against it? To address this question, three sub-questions are explored to generate the necessary information and data to successfully address the main question. Among these questions are:


  1. What have been the most effective community initiatives to climate change and/or environmental sustainability? By seeking to answer this question, already-proven mechanisms and strategies will be selected according to the successful impacts of such initiatives on their community.
  2. What are the individual behaviors and habits affecting climate change that could be changed to reduce the individual’s carbon footprint? By answering this question, contributors to climate change that are particularly related to the individual's lifestyle and habits will be highlighted and used to elaborate the message targeting the individual.
  3. What are the psychological barriers that may inhibit an individual to take climate change actions? By analyzing this question and its possible answers, psychological elements will be discovered to help structure a public campaign to raise awareness of climate change and inspire the individual and communities to take action.

Results of the Study

What have been the most effective communal initiatives to climate change and/or environmental sustainability?

Addressing the first sub-question, What have been the most effective communal initiatives to climate change and/or environmental sustainability? is challenging, as few case studies exist which match the exact criterion of combating climate change on a community level. Nevertheless, for this question, I relied on the “Final Technical Report for Energize Corvallis. EPA Climate Showcase Communities Program (2014),” which describes four residential energy efficiency projects developed by Corvallis Environmental Center in the city of Corvallis, Oregon. I also analyzed the project “The Green Homes Challenge” developed by Frederick County Office of Sustainability and Environmental Resources from Frederick, Maryland. These project’s profiles matched the criterion of combating climate change at the community level. The projects’ profiles are:
Communities Take Charge
– “this program is a grassroots approach to reducing energy use through no-cost and low-cost behavior changes. To participate in the program, people selected three to five energy-saving actions to try for one month from a list of over 50 actions. Participants registered for the program online or in-person. After participants registered online or in person, they received a series of three emails. When participants completed the program by filling out the exit survey, they received program incentives.”
Engaging community members: Over 11% of Corvallis residents (6,269 people) participated in the program. Of the people who registered for the program, 3,362 people (48%) completed the program by filling out the exit survey at the end of the month.
Energizers
– “this program strives to create a network of residents who would serve as liaisons about energy conservation and climate change efforts to specific groups in the community. A handbook was developed with worksheets to help volunteers identify the demographics of their networks and why people in their network might be interested in energy efficiency and conservation. This program also co-developed the Corvallis Clim
ate Summit with a team of volunteers from various organizations in the community. This was envisioned as a time to network, learn about what climate projects were already happening in Corvallis, envision innovative ways forward, and spark new alliances and
collaborations.”
Green Shares
– “unique approach to energy efficiency focused on the interaction with contractors. Contractors have a unique opportunity to encourage installation of maximally efficient equipment at the point of sale. At launch, our strategy was to achieve a culture shift amongst contractors whereby promoting efficiency would become the norm. We aimed to increase the number of contractors focused on energy efficiency and improve the ability of all such contractors to sell energy efficiency measures. By the end of the project, the primary focus was on the latter component of the strategy.”
Neighborhood Sustainability Stewards
– “this program aims to educate residents about positive actions they can make to address climate change and to extend that knowledge to other residents. Participants attend an in-depth training class that covers multiple sessions (10 sessions in an eight week period). Cost for the training is kept low and in return participants sign a pledge to “give back” volunteer hours to the community. Participants are motivated to join the program to increase their personal knowledge and also share that knowledge with others to make change in their community.”
The Green Homes Challenge

The Green Homes Challenge is an online tool that motivates households to take action at home to save energy, adopt environmentally-friendly practices, and use renewable energy. Started in 2011, the Green Homes Challenge guides, rewards, and recognizes households for saving energy, adopting green lifestyle practices, and using renewable energy. To get started, households sign up for a free account at https://www.frederickgreenchallenge.org/, find actions to take up, add them to an Actions To-Do List, and earn points when they mark them as complete. The challenges are: Be a Power Saver, Be a Green Leader, and Be a Renewable Star.

This project is advertised throughout radio, print media, the web, and in transit buses. Participants receive a handbook with information about the program and with educational information about the different saving actions the participant can take. Participants receive rewards in points for their participation, which increment according to the energy-saving actions the participants take. It also provides public recognition and visual identification to the houses engaged in the program. It also provides monetary prizes annually to the challenge winners.

The objective of the programs by 2014: 800 Certified Power Savers, 600 Certified Green Leaders, 100 Certified Renewable Stars. The outcome was 486 Certified Power Savers, 260 Certified Green Leaders, and 113 Certified Renewable Stars.

Upon analysis, it is clear that community action projects are comprised of three main components. The first is the educational component, which is necessary to raise awareness about the issue. The second is incentives or saving components, which provide motivation and make participation in the program a logical choice. The third is that the individuals and community members should be part of or the main actors in carrying out the initiative. In the following table (Table No.1), the results of these programs are quantified by the number of engaged population.

PROJECT NAME
TARGET POPULATION
ENGAGED POPULATION
Community Take Charge
6269
3362
Power Saver
800
486
Green Leaders
600
260
Renewable Stars
100
113
(Table No.1)
What are the individual behaviors and habits affecting climate change that could be changed to reduce the individual’s carbon footprint?

To answer the second sub-question, What are the individual behaviors and habits affecting climate change that could be changed to reduce the individual’s carbon footprint? I analyzed several reports about carbon footprint production and sources at the global, national and individual level. For the global perspective, the document “Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report. Summary for Policymakers” reports that anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions since the pre-industrial revolution have contributed to a large increase in the atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). From 1750 to 2011, the total anthropogenic CO2 emissions to the atmosphere were 2040 ± 310 GtCO2, 50% of which have occurred in the last 40 years. (4)

At the national level, I relied upon an account of the United States carbon footprint compiled by the EPA in 2015, entitled “Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2013.” This report states that “in 2013, total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions were 6,673.0 MMT (million metric tons) CO2e. Total U.S. emissions have increased by 5.9 percent from 1990 to 2013, and emissions increased from 2012 to 2013 by 2.0 percent (127.9 MMT CO2e.). The increase from 2012 to 2013 was due to an increase in the carbon intensity of fuels consumed to generate electricity due to an increase in coal consumption, with decreased natural gas consumption.” (28)

Answering the question from an individual perspective is the main objective of this research. One of the most important sources that contributed to an understanding of the individual carbon footprint and the impact it may have if some behaviors and habits change, is Vandenbergh, M.P., Barkenbus, J. and Gilligan, J. (2009) “Individual Carbon Emissions: The Low-Hanging Fruit”. This study identifies 7 sources of household gas emissions and their possible adjustment to reduce the emission.

  1. Personal Motor Vehicle Engine Idling consumes approximately 5 to 8 percent of personal-use gasoline. These emissions produce 570 to 920 pounds of CO2 per year. For idle times of 45 seconds or more, with a 10% idling reduction this would reduce CO2 emissions by 6–9 million tons per year while reducing criteria pollutants and saving the average driver somewhere in the range of $9–$14 per year.
  2. Standby Power Use comprises 5 to 7 percent of the United States household electricity use, which in turn produces 47 to 65 million tons of CO2 per year. If standby vehicle habit can be decreased by one-third, this would reduce CO2 emissions by 16 to 22 million tons.
  3. Common incandescent light bulbs. These are responsible for 70 to 160 million tons of CO2 emissions per year. Using CFL (Compact Fluorescent Lamp) instead of this type of bulb would reduce carbon dioxide emissions by about 190 pounds per year.
  4. Household Thermostat. The annual reduction obtained from a two-degree F change in summer and winter temperatures is calculated from 1,000 to 2,000 pounds of CO2 per household.
  5. Water Heater Temperature. A decrease of twenty degrees F could produce as much as 1,466 pounds of CO2 emissions reductions per year.
  6. Tire Pressure in Personal Motor Vehicles. “The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that vehicle gas mileage improves an average of 3.3 percent by inflating tires regularly to proper pressures.” A two-car family could save about $120 per year by making this change. The one-third increase in proper tire inflation would translate into CO2 savings of 12 million tons.
  7. Air Filters in Personal Vehicles. “Specialists recommend air filter changes every 12,000 to 15,000 miles. Periodic air filter changes can save the vehicle owner anywhere from 7 to 10 percent in fuel mileage. This measure also can result in substantial CO2 emissions savings. In fact, even if remedial measures only result in an additional one-fourth of all vehicles having their filters changed on an annual basis, 19 to 27 million tons of CO2 will be saved.”

In short, according to Vandenbergh, et al., (2008) if started in 2009, the limited set of “low-hanging fruit” measures outlined in this article would have generated annual reductions in the neighborhood of 150 million tons of CO2 by 2014. These emissions reductions would have amounted to roughly 7 percent of the total U.S. annual individual and household emissions as of 2005.

Another article I consulted relates individual carbon footprint to food consumption. “Measurement and communication of greenhouse gas emissions from U.S. food consumption via carbon calculators” by Kim, B., and Neff, R. (2009) is a study of the different carbon footprint calculators that include the individual/household carbon footprint originating from food consumption. Food consumption is responsible for about 15% of the United States gas emission. Kim and Neff (2009) stress the fact that “Dietary impacts on climate change represent a critical area for public knowledge and behavior change.”

For this research question, I also took into account the most recent data provided by the University of Michigan Center for Sustainable Systems in its Carbon Footprint Factsheet (2014). It stated that average food consumption by a single United States household emits 8.1 metric tons of CO2e each year. The production of food accounts for 83% of emissions while its transportation accounts for 11%. Meat production accounts for more greenhouse gases per calorie than grain or vegetables due to the inefficient transportation system. Cattle, sheep, and goats produced 141 million metric tons (MMT) in CO2e of methane in the U.S. in 2012 through enteric fermentation (digestion).

After revising the actual statistics on GHG emission per behavior/habit, a table to project possible outcomes on a 10%, 25%, 50% and 75% habit/behavior change will be drafted and a graphic will be produced.

The research shows that individual lifestyle, consumption habits, and personal behavior are factors that contribute significantly to the individual carbon footprint. Factors such as driving habits, house lighting, water usage, use of electronic domestic equipment, as well as food consumption habits are all feasible behavioral changes that reduce CO2 emission.

What are the psychological barriers that may inhibit an individual to take climate change actions?
In answering the third and final sub-question, What are the psychological barriers that may inhibit an individual to take climate change actions? I relied upon the body of research relating to the intersection of psychology and climate change. The most significant source used in this regard was the comprehensive 2011 report issued by the American Psychological Association (APA), entitled “Psychology and Global Climate Change: Addressing a Multifaceted Phenomenon and Set of Challenges”. The APA states that psychologists can address climate change through

...better[ing] the understanding of the behaviors that drive climate change by building better behavioral models based on empirical analyses, providing deeper understanding of individual and household behavior, and applying evaluation research methods to efforts to develop and improve interventions.
The section of the study most relevant to answering the sub-question was section five of the text, which asks Which Psychological Barriers Limit Climate Change Action? Its authors describe a series of attitudes that constitute barriers to producing carbon-neutral behavioral adjustments. These attitudes are ignorance; uncertainty; mistrust and reactance; denial; judgemental discounting; place attachment; habit, perceived behavioral control; perceived risks from behavioral changes; tokenism and rebound effect; social comparison, norms, conformity, and perceived equity; conflicting goals and aspiration; and belief in solutions outside of human control (65-68). For each barrier, there is also further discussion on the role it plays.

Other sources were relied upon to broaden the scope of possible answers to the sub-questions. The article “Doing No Harm” provided an additional perspective on psychology and climate change, incorporating a set of diagnostic tools from interdisciplinary fields such as ecopsychology. The main thesis of this article was that individuals involved in the “people professions” – including psychologists – must begin to incorporate the facts of climate change into their pledge to “Do No Harm.” In other words, they must weigh the “psychosocial impacts of climate change,” and, as professional caregivers, constantly strive to answer the question: “For whom do the caring professions care: the immediate client, those at a distance, or future generations?”

Another crucial source in this broadened perspective was an article authored by climate change specialists Susanne Moser and Rachel Ekstrom entitled “A Framework to Diagnose Barriers to Climate Change Adaptation.” Moser and Ekstrom develop a continuum of adaptations, as follows

Coping measures (short-term responses to deal with projected climate change impacts and return to status quo).
More Substantial Adjustments (change in some aspects of system without complete transformation)
System transformation (incl. paradigm shift)

Additionally, they discuss a distinction between barriers and limits. Barriers are malleable and can be adjusted, while limits cannot (under the current paradigm). In revealing a range of perspectives relating to climate change and psychology, these sources provided sufficient data to develop an answer addressing the sub-question.

Researching this sub-question, I concluded there are specific psychological mechanisms that determine whether or not an individual will engage in actions pro-environment. The psychological factors outlined by the APA (2011), the frameworks defined by Moser, S.C. & Ekstrom, J.A. (2010), and the interdisciplinary perspectives from eco-psychology, deep ecology, etc., combined to create a nuanced portrait of the various psychological factors which influence an individual to take or not take action against climate change.

Relationship of Research to the Field

This research has proceeded according to the outlined methodology, with a few exceptions. Unfortunately, the sampling size of community projects that meet the specific criteria outlined at the beginning of the project was lower than expected. However, this dearth of actual community initiatives is to be interpreted as evidence of the necessity of clearly formulating a framework and plan of action. I was nevertheless able to analyze four important environmental community projects. I also was able to research and make an inventory of the different habits and behaviors that contribute most significantly to the individual carbon footprint. Lastly, I was able to outline the different psychological factors that influence the individual to make behavioral adjustments in the face of climate change. These findings, which answer the three sub-questions, have each been analyzed for the role they play in the positive final outcome of a climate change community action project.

Summary and Discussion

Analyzing the characteristics of the different environmental community projects that I showcased, concerning the different habits and behaviors that contribute to the individual carbon footprint; and to the factors that influence the individual engagement in climate change actions, I found that:

  1. The habits/behaviors targeted in the projects are part of those that I outlined as major contributors to the individual carbon footprint. These include house lighting, water usage, electro domestic use, etc.
  2. Project characteristics such as education, incentives/savings, and individual initiatives to take action correspond very well to the psychological factors that inhibit the individual to take action. These aspects are ignorance; place attachment; habit, perceived behavioral control; perceived risks from behavioral changes; social comparison, norms, conformity, and perceived equity; conflicting goals and aspiration.
  3. In addition, the projects showcased tend to minimize the psychological components that may inhibit individual actions. These include mistrust and reactance; denial; judgemental discounting; habit, perceived behavioral control; perceived risks from behavioral changes; tokenism and rebound effect; and belief in solutions outside of human control.
This project contributes to the continuing search made by local, national and international communities for viable ways to save our planet from the effects of global warming. By adding to the knowledge base of climate change and effective strategy for the community-based movement, this project strengthens the links between research and practice. Accounting for carbon emissions at the local, national and global levels provides a synthesis of the global and local, resulting in a clear set of criteria and framework for effective response to climate change by any community action project.

Conclusion

The answer to the question How can awareness of climate change can be raised and more efficiently engage people to fight against it? is promising. The showcased projects provide important components to be replicated. Firstly, outreach messages that present information in a positive light instead of a catastrophic one will lessen the sway of psychological mechanisms like denial, judgemental discounting, and belief in solutions outside of human control. The projects should include components that incentivize individual actions. These incentives will make the individual feel they are being rewarded while at the same time making important contributions to save the planet. The direct benefit of the project strengthens the individual sense of place attachment. Also, making the individual the main actor of the changes he/she is engaging in make him/her an effective agent, instead of falling prey to being influenced by others and other psychological inhibitors. Also, providing an equal and transparent opportunity to all stakeholders would make possible a positive social comparison, acceptance of the norms, conformity, and perceived equity.

The final goal of the project, of more efficiently and effectively engaging people in the fight against climate change, guided by the three sub-questions, has been well-met. The strong correlations observed between the separate factors of each sub-research area show that there is a strong linkage between each of the three areas. Local, individual, community-based actions have global effects, and, furthermore, have the additional effect of eliminating or reducing psychological barriers to climate change action while buffering those psychological factors that aid an effective climate change response. In other words, the three research areas, taken together, have a synergistic effect which, if implemented in the form of, for instance, a community initiative, will have real consequences that reverberate throughout the world.

References

  1. APA (2009). Psychology and Global Climate Change Addressing a Multi-faceted Phenomenon and Set of Challenges. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/science/about/publications/climate-change.aspx
  2. Center for Sustainable Systems, University of Michigan. (2014). Greenhouse Gases Factsheet. Pub. No. CSS05-21. Retrieved from: http://css.snre.umich.edu/factsheets
  3. Center for Sustainable Systems, University of Michigan. (2014). U.S. Food System Factsheet. Pub. No. CSS01-06. http://css.snre.umich.edu/factsheets
  4. Cornforth, Sue. (2013). Doing No Harm in a Changing Climate: Professional Education, and the Problematic ‘Psy’ Subject. Educational Philosophy and Theory. Vol. 45 (10), 1054–1066.  Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2011.00786.x
  5. Corvallis Environmental Center, (2014). Communities Take Charge Final Report. Retrieved from: http://energizecorvallis.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/06/ Final-Report.-Communities-Take-Charge.-7.1.141.pdf)
  6. Corvallis Environmental Center, (2014). Energizers Final Report. Retrieved from: (http://energizecorvallis.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/06/ Final-Report.-Energizers.-7.1.14.pdf)
  7. Corvallis Environmental Center, (2014). Green Shares Final Report. Retrieved from: (http://energizecorvallis.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/06/ Final-Report_Green-Shares3.4.14.pdf)
  8. Corvallis Environmental Center, (2014). Neighborhood Sustainability Stewards Final Report. Retrieved from (http://energizecorvallis.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Final-Technical- Report-NSS_final-2.pdf)
  9. Dickinson, Janis L., Barkenbus, J., Gilligan, J. (2013). How Framing Climate Change Influences Citizen Scientists' Intentions To Do Something About It. Journal Of Environmental Education 44. 145-158. ERIC. Retrieved from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00958964.2012.742032
  10. Encyclopædia Britannica (2015). Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com
  11. EPA (2015). Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2013. Retrieved from: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/usinventoryreport.html
  12. Frederick Douglas County, Maryland. Green House Challenge. Retrieved from: https://frederickcountymd.gov/3531/Green-Homes-Challenge
  13. Frederick Douglas County, Maryland. Green House Challenge Website. Frederick County [TV Show]. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lif8sHeQOyE.
  14. Frederick Douglas County, Maryland. County Spotlight - Green House Challenge [video]. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aKh_j3KRamw.
  15. Gifford, Robert (2011). The Dragons of Inaction: Psychological Barriers that Limit Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation. American Psychologist 66 (4): 290.
  16. IPCC (2013). Summary for Policymakers. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Retrieved from: http://www.ipcc.ch/
  17. IPCC (2014). Summary for Policymakers. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.  1-32. Retrieved from: http://www.ipcc.ch/
  18. Kim, B., Neff, R., (2009). Measurement and Communication of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from U.S. Food Consumption Via Carbon Calculators. Ecological Economics, DOI:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.08.017
  19. Mosera, Susanne C. & Ekstromc, Julia A. (2010). A framework to diagnose barriers to climate change adaptation. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science of the United States. 107 (51). Retrieved from: www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1007887107
  20. Patrick J. Egan and Megan Mullin (2012). Turning Personal Experience into Political Attitudes: The Effect of Local Weather on Americans’ Perceptions about Global Warming. The Journal of Politics. 74, pp 796-809. DOI:10.1017/S0022381612000448.
  21. Pew Research Center (July 2015). Climate Change Seen as Top Global Threat. Retrieved from http://www.pewglobal.org/files/2015/07/Pew-Research-Center-Global-Threats-Report-FINAL-July-14-2015.pdf
  22. Reser, Joseph P., and Janet K. Swim, (2011). Adapting to and Coping with the Threat and Impacts of Climate Change. American Psychologist 66 (4): 277.
  23. Swim, Janet K., et al. (2011). Psychology's Contributions to Understanding and Addressing Global Climate Change. American Psychologist 66 (4): 241.
  24. Vandenbergh, Michael P., and Barkenbus, Jack and Gilligan, Jonathan M. (2008). Individual Carbon Emissions: The Low-Hanging Fruit. UCLA Law Review, 55; Vanderbilt Public Law Research Paper No. 08-36. Retrieved from: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1161143